Glossary

Philosophical Concepts

Eudaimonia – Often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing,” eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of human life, achieved through virtuous activity and rational living.

Virtue (Arete) – Excellence of character and intellect; Aristotle distinguishes between moral virtues (like courage and temperance) and intellectual virtues (like wisdom and prudence).

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis) – The ability to make sound decisions in real-life situations, balancing reason and experience to determine the best course of action.

The Golden Mean – Aristotle’s principle that virtue lies between two extremes (deficiency and excess). For example, courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice.

Teleology – The study of purpose or goals in nature and human life. Aristotle argues that everything, including humans, has a telos (purpose) that defines its function.

Akrasia – Weakness of will or lack of self-control; acting against one’s better judgment due to desire or emotion. Aristotle challenges Socrates by acknowledging that people sometimes knowingly do the wrong thing.

External Goods – Wealth, health, political power, and good looks—things Aristotle sees as contributing to happiness but not guaranteeing it. Unlike Socrates or the Stoics, Aristotle believes these goods play a role in a flourishing life.

People & Schools

Socrates – Earlier philosopher who influenced Aristotle; Socrates believed virtue was knowledge and sufficient for happiness, a claim Aristotle modifies by emphasizing external goods and habits.

Plato – Aristotle’s teacher; unlike Plato, Aristotle rejected the idea of separate, eternal Forms and focused on practical ethics grounded in human nature.

Cynics & Stoics – Philosophical schools that took different approaches to virtue; the Cynics emphasized radical simplicity, while the Stoics stressed emotional detachment. Aristotle, by contrast, embraced a more balanced, socially embedded view of virtue.

Elizabeth Ward & John M. Cooper – Modern scholars who discuss Aristotle’s political philosophy, particularly his belief that a flourishing life involves active engagement in civic life.

Edith Hall – A contemporary philosopher who expands Aristotle’s ethics to modern contexts, critiquing his views on sociopolitical inequality and suggesting new applications.

Key Ethical Ideas & Practices

Research & Investigation – Aristotle’s approach to ethics involves experimentation and self-improvement through reflection and practice, rather than rigid rules or abstract contemplation.

Deliberation – The process of careful reasoning before making decisions; Aristotle outlines best practices for deliberation, such as considering multiple perspectives, consulting experts, and recognizing the role of luck.

Character Habituation – The idea that virtue is developed through repeated practice rather than intellectual knowledge alone. Good habits shape good character over time.

The Three Routes to the Good Life – Aristotle identifies three ideal lifestyles for achieving eudaimonia:

1. The Contemplative Life – Devotion to intellectual and philosophical pursuits.

2. The Political Life – Leadership and civic engagement, aiming to improve society.

3. The Life of Practical Excellence – Finding and excelling in one’s personal vocation while embodying virtue in everyday life.

The Social World as a Seascape – Aristotle compares moral decision-making to navigating the ocean rather than a fixed landscape, emphasizing adaptability and situational awareness in ethical life.

Aristotle’s Rules for Deliberation (as summarized by Edith Hall)

1. Don’t deliberate in haste. 

2. Verify the information you’re working with. 

3. Consult with impartial witnesses or, when possible, experts. 

4. Try to take the perspective of all those involved. 

5. Examine all known precedents. 

6. Estimate the likelihood of each possible trajectory and prepare for each one proportionately. 

7. Examine the role of luck. Consider what unlucky things might occur, such as sudden illness. 

8. Don’t use intoxicants when deliberating.

The Moral (or Social) Virtues

Courage – The mean between cowardice and recklessness; facing fear appropriately.

Moderation (Temperance) – The mean between indulgence and insensitivity to pleasure.

Proper Ambition – Striking a balance between laziness and overreaching ambition.

Gentleness – The proper regulation of anger, avoiding both rage and passivity.

Truthfulness – Honesty about oneself, avoiding exaggeration or self-deprecation.

Wittiness – The right balance between humor and seriousness in social settings.

Friendliness – Pleasantness in daily interactions, between flattery and hostility.

Justice – Fairness in distributing goods, rewards, and punishments appropriately.

Generosity – The right measure of giving, between stinginess and extravagance.

Magnificence – Large-scale generosity for public benefit, such as funding public works.

Greatness of Soul (Proper Pride) – Claiming the honors one rightly deserves, without vanity or false humility.

The Intellectual Virtues

Craft Knowledge (Techne) – Practical skill and expertise in creating or doing things.

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis) – Sound judgment in ethical and political matters.

Scientific Knowledge (Episteme) – Understanding of universal truths and principles.

Philosophical Wisdom (Sophia) – The highest intellectual virtue, combining deep theoretical understanding with practical application.

Intuitive Reasoning (Nous) – The ability to grasp fundamental principles and first causes without deduction.

Friendship in Aristotle’s Ethics

Friendships of Utility – Based on mutual benefit, such as business or work relationships.

Friendships of Pleasure – Based on shared enjoyment, like hobby-based friendships.

Perfect Friendship – The highest form of friendship, based on mutual virtue and a shared pursuit of the good life.

Dropping Unvirtuous Friends – Aristotle suggests that friendships should be based on moral character, and those who stray from virtue may need to be let go.

Words You Might Not Know

Floruit – A term meaning the period in which someone was most active or influential.

Elitist – Favoring the privileged or upper class, which some critics argue is a flaw in Aristotle’s ethics.

Habituation – The process of forming habits, central to Aristotle’s moral theory.

Disposition – A tendency or inclination, used by Aristotle to describe virtues as stable character traits developed over time.

Pragmatism – A philosophy emphasizing practical action over abstract theory, which aligns with Aristotle’s approach to ethics.