Lesson 2.2: Not of this World (Pt. II)

Glossary

Philosophical Concepts

• Authoritarianism – A form of government where power is concentrated in a single ruler or ruling class, often at the expense of individual freedoms. Some critics, like Karl Popper, see Plato’s Republic as authoritarian.

• Aristocracy – Rule by the best, or the most knowledgeable, as Plato envisioned in his ideal state (Republic).

• Timocracy – Rule by the military or those who value honor and warfare. Plato saw this as a degeneration from aristocracy.

• Oligarchy – Rule by the wealthy; Plato criticized this form of government as prioritizing money over virtue.

• Democracy – Rule by the people; Plato saw this as valuing freedom above all else, even at the cost of wisdom and order.

• Tyranny – The worst form of government, where absolute power is concentrated in one ruler, emerging from the chaos of an undisciplined democracy.

• The Noble Lie – A myth or falsehood, endorsed by Plato in Republic, meant to maintain social order by persuading people to accept their role in society.

• Political Cycles – Plato’s theory that governments inevitably decay from aristocracy → timocracy → oligarchy → democracy → tyranny in a recurring cycle.

• Individualism – The belief in personal autonomy and rights over the collective. Plato was not an individualist; he saw the polis (city-state) as central to human life.

• The Philosopher-King – Plato’s ideal ruler, who, after extensive education, grasps the Forms and governs with wisdom rather than self-interest.

• The Rule of Law – The idea that laws, rather than individual rulers, should govern society. In later works (Statesman, Laws), Plato acknowledged this as a necessary fallback if philosopher-kings were unfeasible.

Historical & Political Context

• Thucydides’ Melian Dialogue – A conversation recorded by the historian Thucydides in which Athenian envoys tell the people of Melos that “the strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must.” This reflects the harsh realism of Athenian democracy during the Peloponnesian War.

• Dionysus II of Syracuse – The tyrant whom Plato attempted (unsuccessfully) to reform into a philosopher-king.

• Archytas of Tarentum – A Pythagorean philosopher and statesman who helped Plato escape captivity in Syracuse.

• Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) – The conflict between Athens and Sparta, during which Athenian democracy displayed some of its worst excesses, possibly influencing Plato’s skepticism of democracy.

• Macedonian Hegemony – The rise of Macedon under Philip II and Alexander the Great, which overshadowed Athens and may have further alienated philosophers from democratic politics.

• The Academy – Plato’s school in Athens, founded in the 380s BCE, which lasted for nearly 300 years before being dissolved by the Roman general Sulla.

• Middle Platonism – A later interpretation of Plato’s works that saw Republic not as a political text but as a guide to the structure of the soul.

Plato as a Moral Teacher

• The Function of the Dialogues – Plato’s dialogues are pedagogical, meant to provoke thought rather than simply instruct. Some arguments may be intentionally weak to encourage deeper reflection.

• Philosophy as a Way of Life – A tradition that began with Socrates and was further developed by Plato, emphasizing self-examination and rational living over material concerns.

• Ethics and the Soul – Plato saw ethics as dependent on metaphysics; a well-ordered soul, ruled by reason, is necessary for true happiness.

• The Tripartite Soul – Plato’s model of the soul, consisting of reason (logos), spirit (thumos), and appetite (epithumia). Justice and virtue arise when reason governs the other parts.

• The Chariot Allegory – Found in Phaedrus, this metaphor illustrates the struggle between the rational part of the soul (the charioteer) and the two opposing forces: the noble horse (our higher aspirations) and the unruly horse (our base desires).

Platonism & Spirituality

• Metempsychosis – The transmigration of souls (reincarnation), which Plato discusses in Timaeus and Laws as a means of ensuring moral progress across lifetimes.

• Becoming Like God – Plato’s belief that true wisdom and virtue elevate a person toward a divine state, free from bodily distractions and material concerns (Theaetetus).

• Purification of the Soul – The idea that practicing philosophy is a preparation for death, as it teaches one to detach from bodily desires and focus on eternal truths.

• Augustine & Plato – The Christian theologian Augustine saw Plato’s philosophy as the most compatible with Christian doctrine, especially in its focus on transcending the material world.

• Mysticism in Plato – Some scholars see Plato as part of a mystical tradition that links rational philosophy with divine understanding, influenced by Pythagoreanism.

Philosophical Practices & Learning in the Academy

• Attention (Prosoche) – The disciplined practice of maintaining focus, a key aspect of later philosophical traditions like Stoicism.

• Memorization & Meditation – Platonists likely used short philosophical sayings (dogmas) for contemplation, much like later Stoic and Epicurean practices.

• Research & Investigation – A method of applying philosophical principles to real-life events.

• Mindfulness & Rational Order – Training one’s mind to focus on higher realities, such as the Forms, as a way to achieve inner peace and self-mastery.

• Cosmic Perspective – Viewing life’s problems (e.g., heartbreak, loss) through the lens of the grand order of the cosmos, thereby reducing personal suffering.

• Mathematics as a Guide to Rationality – Plato saw mathematical reasoning as a model for how rationality should govern human life and society.

Words You Might Not Know

• Eudaemonia – Often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing,” it refers to the highest form of human well-being, achieved through virtue.

• Logos – Meaning “reason” or “rational principle”; for Plato, aligning with logos brings one closer to divine understanding.

• Hegemony – Dominance or leadership of one state or group over others (e.g., Macedonian hegemony over Greece).

• Pathē – Emotional disturbances that must be controlled to achieve virtue and rational self-mastery.

• Axiomatization – The process of setting up fundamental principles in a field (e.g., how Euclid did for geometry); Plato encouraged this approach in the Academy.

• Dogma – A firmly held philosophical or religious belief; in Plato’s time, different schools had core dogmas that students memorized.

• Phantasmata – Ghostly apparitions; Plato mentioned experiencing these, possibly hinting at mystical or psychedelic elements in religious practices like the Eleusinian Mysteries.