Lesson 1.4: Magma

Glossary

Philosophical Concepts

• Monism – The view that reality is ultimately one thing rather than many.

  • Substance Monism – The belief that only one substance exists (e.g., Parmenides' Being).

  • Material Monism – The belief that this single substance is material or physical (e.g., Milesians).

• Being vs. Becoming –

  • Being – That which is unchanging, eternal, and indivisible (Parmenides’ view).

  • Becoming – The changing, impermanent world (Milesians, Heraclitus).

  • Parmenides rejects Becoming entirely, arguing that all change is an illusion.

• What-is vs. What-is-not –

  • What-is (Being) – The set of all things that exist; indivisible, eternal, unchanging (Parmenides).

  • What-is-not – Cannot exist because it is literally unthinkable (you cannot think of “nothing”).

• Zeno’s Paradoxes – A series of thought experiments defending Parmenides' rejection of motion and change, including:

  • Achilles and the Tortoise – Demonstrates that motion is impossible because one must always cross infinite halfway points.

• The Original Mixture (Anaxagoras) –

  • Everything in the world originated from an infinite mixture of tiny, indivisible particles.

  • Unlike Parmenides, Anaxagoras believed in division, but only to a certain limit—division cannot create nothingness (what-is-not).

• Material Pluralism (Empedocles) –

  • Rejecting monism, Empedocles argued that four fundamental elements—earth, water, fire, and air—make up all things.

  • These elements combine and separate under the influence of two opposing forces:

    • Love – Unifies things.

    • Strife – Separates things.

• Cyclical Cosmology (Empedocles) –

  • Unlike Anaxagoras, who saw creation as a single event, Empedocles believed the cosmos undergoes endless cycles.

  • Sphere – The state of perfect unity when Love is strongest.

  • Cosmic Separation – As Strife increases, elements pull apart, creating planets, life, and disorder.

  • Chaos – The peak of Strife, when monsters and disembodied limbs roam.

  • The Cycle Restarts – Love begins acting again, and the process repeats.

• The Soul & Reincarnation (Empedocles) –

  • Metempsychosis – The belief in reincarnation; the soul transmigrates into new bodies after death.

  • Humans were once divine beings, but due to Strife, they were reborn as mortal creatures.

  • Ethical implications – Since all creatures may be reincarnated humans, killing any creature is morally wrong.

Scientific & Metaphysical Innovations

• Mind (Nous, Νούς) –

  • Anaxagoras’ concept of a cosmic intelligence responsible for the motion and organization of particles.

  • A precursor to natural laws—suggesting a rational order governing reality.

• Infinite Worlds (Anaxagoras) –

  • The first recorded claim that there is no reason to believe there aren’t other planets and other worlds.

• Naturalistic Explanations of Phenomena –

  • Anaxagoras and Empedocles both attempted to explain events without divine intervention, such as:

    • Eclipses – Due to natural celestial mechanics, not omens.

    • Earthquakes – Misattributed to aether disturbances (wrong, but a rational attempt).

    • The Nile Floods – Caused by melting Ethiopian snow (incorrect, but not unreasonable).

Ethical & Political Implications

• Origins of Universal Moral Law (Empedocles) –

  • First known articulation of universal ethical principles—morality is not just a human construct but a cosmic law.

  • Vegetarianism – Killing animals is morally wrong because they may contain reincarnated souls.

  • Prohibition of Blood Sacrifice – A radical challenge to Greek religious traditions.

• Ethics & Rationality –

  • Parmenides – Reality is unchanging, so the rational person must accept this truth.

  • Anaxagoras – The mind should remain calm in the face of tragedy (his reaction to his son’s death).

  • Empedocles – Ethical purification leads to spiritual elevation, even godhood.

• Political Experimentation in Athens –

  • Around this time, Athens begins experimenting with democracy (coining the word demokratia).

  • However, Athens’ democracy had imperial ambitions, leading to conflicts with Sparta.

• The Peloponnesian War (431–405 BCE) –

  • A catastrophic 27-year conflict between Athens and Sparta.

  • Sparked by Athenian expansion and Spartan fear.

  • The Greek world tore itself apart, a "world war" in ancient terms.

  • Atrocities on both sides – Both Athens and Sparta appealed to Persia for help.

Figures & Historical Context

• Parmenides (ca. 515–450 BCE) –

  • Lived through the Persian invasions of Greece.

  • A mystic and shaman who allegedly locked himself in caves to communicate with the divine.

  • His philosophy rejects all change, claiming that reality is singular and eternal.

• Anaxagoras (ca. 500–428 BCE) –

  • Moved from Ionia to Athens, becoming a prototypical scientist.

  • Accused of atheism due to his naturalistic explanations.

  • Maintained calm composure in all situations (death of son, eclipses, etc.).

• Empedocles (ca. 494–434 BCE) –

  • A philosopher, magician, and self-proclaimed god.

  • Famous for his dramatic death: he threw himself into Mount Etna to prove his divinity.

  • Had a religious yet rational worldview, combining mysticism with scientific curiosity.

• Thucydides (ca. 460–395 BCE) –

  • The historian of the Peloponnesian War.

  • Believed Spartan fear of Athens’ rising power caused the war.

Words You Might Not Know

• Metempsychosis – The transmigration of souls (reincarnation).

• Nous (Νούς) – Mind or intellect; Anaxagoras’ term for the rational principle governing the cosmos.

• Material Pluralism – The belief that multiple elements make up reality, as opposed to monism.

• Cosmic Law – The idea that moral principles are embedded in the fabric of the universe, not human constructs.

• Strife (Νεῖκος) & Love (Φιλότης) – The forces of separation and unity in Empedocles' cosmology.

• Aether (Αἰθήρ) – An early concept of a celestial substance, later used in scientific theories.

• The Big Crunch – A modern cosmological theory similar to Empedocles' cyclical universe.

• Demokratia (Δημοκρατία) – "Rule by the people," coined in Athens.

• Atheism in Antiquity – The accusation of impiety or rejecting the gods, which could be a capital offense.

• Imperial Ambitions – The expansionist policies of Athens, which alarmed Sparta and led to war.