Lesson 1.5: Relativity Theory

Glossary

Sophistic Movement & Key Figures

• Sophists (σοφισταί) – A group of itinerant teachers in ancient Greece who charged fees for training in rhetoric, virtue (arete), and success-oriented skills. Traditionally maligned as charlatans by Plato and other philosophers, but modern interpretations highlight their democratic and educational contributions.

• Protagoras (c. 490–420 BCE) –

  • A leading Sophist and early relativist.

  • Known for the famous claim:

    • "Man is the measure of all things" – often interpreted as a statement of relativism.

  • Taught students to argue both sides of an issue, a technique used in law and debate.

  • Advocated free education, though likely only for men.

  • Agnostic about the gods, writing: "Concerning the gods, I am unable to say whether they exist or not."

• Gorgias (c. 485–380 BCE) –

  • A rhetorician who compared persuasive speech to magic and witchcraft.

  • Argued in Helen that persuasion, beauty, or divine influence could absolve someone from blame.

  • Raised early questions about free will, responsibility, and the power of speech.

• Antiphon (5th century BCE) –

  • Possibly two different figures (Antiphon the Sophist vs. Antiphon of Rhamnus).

  • Wrote On Truth and On Concord, arguing that laws exist to control the weak and that self-preservation is the only natural law.

  • Criticized superstition and traditional legal practices, preferring rational analysis.

• Prodicus (c. 470–399 BCE) –

  • Advocated for precise language and conceptual clarity.

  • May have worked on the first Greek dictionary.

  • Offered an early deflationary account of religion, claiming that gods were just deified natural elements and heroic figures.

  • Ethical Pragmatism – Argued that belief in the gods was useful for social cohesion, regardless of whether they were real.

Relativism & Skepticism

• Perceptual Relativism – The idea that perception is subjective: what one person sees is true for them, even if another sees something different.

• Alethic Relativism (Truth Relativism) – The claim that truth itself is relative to individuals or groups.

• Moral Relativism – The belief that moral truths vary between individuals or cultures.

  • Subjectivism – Morality is determined by each individual.

  • Cultural Relativism – Morality is defined within a society.

• Global Relativism – The most extreme form of relativism, where everything (truth, morality, perception) is relative.

  • This view is often criticized as self-refuting: if all truth is relative, then so is relativism itself.

• Skepticism – A broader philosophical stance that questions whether true knowledge is possible.

  • In this lesson, skepticism refers to the view that when opinions conflict, we may never know the truth.

Rhetoric & the Power of Persuasion

• Rhetoric (ῥητορική) – The art of persuasive speaking, a major focus of Sophist education.

• Making the Weaker Argument the Stronger – A criticism of the Sophists' rhetorical training, alleging that they taught people to win debates regardless of the truth.

• Psychodynamics of Persuasion – Gorgias compared persuasive speech to magic, arguing that when someone is "under the spell" of rhetoric, they might not be fully responsible for their actions.

• Ostracism (ὀστρακισμός) – Athenian practice where a citizen could be banished for 10 years based on public vote.

  • Since persuasion could be a matter of life and death in democratic Athens, Sophists' training in rhetoric was in high demand.

Ethical & Political Themes

• Democratic Implications of Protagoras –

  • Traditionally seen as a relativist, but some scholars argue that he was instead advocating for a democratic epistemology.

  • "Man is the measure" could mean that the aristocracy does not have privileged knowledge—everyone should have a say in determining truth, justice, and value.

  • Reinforces the democratic idea that all voices matter in public deliberation.

• Protagoras’ Moderate Skepticism –

  • He did not claim all beliefs are equally true, but instead that some beliefs are more useful than others.

  • This is an early form of pragmatism:

    • The best belief is the one that leads to the most social harmony and practical success.

• Antiphon’s Critique of Law & Justice –

  • Laws exist to control the weak, and those who obey them are doubly disadvantaged.

  • The best strategy? Pretend to follow the law while pursuing self-interest.

  • However, he warns against short-sighted selfishness—true success requires rational long-term thinking.

• Ethics of Language (Prodicus) –

  • Language shapes how we think and behave.

  • Misuse of words leads to misunderstanding and emotional manipulation.

  • Later Stoics would adopt this view, emphasizing clear thinking through precise language.

• Sophists & the Role of Religion –

  • Many Sophists questioned traditional religious beliefs.

  • Some, like Prodicus, suggested that gods were human inventions.

  • However, others argued that religion was useful for social stability—a precursor to ethical pragmatism.

Words You Might Not Know

• Itinerant Teacher – A traveling instructor who teaches in different cities.

• Alethic (ἀληθής) – A Greek term related to truth; in philosophy, alethic relativism is the view that truth itself is not absolute.

• Skepticism (Σκεπτικισμός) – The stance that true knowledge may be impossible.

• Miasma (μίασμα) – A "spiritual pollution" associated with guilt and wrongdoing in Greek thought.

• Ostracism (ὀστρακισμός) – A political exile system used in Athens to remove individuals who were seen as threats to democracy.

• Techne (τέχνη) – Often translated as "skill" or "craft", referring to practical expertise in rhetoric, governance, or other domains.

• Epistemic Peer – Someone who has equal knowledge or intellectual capacity in a particular domain.

• Cultural Relativism – The belief that moral values are determined by cultural norms.

• Ethical Pragmatism – The idea that the usefulness of beliefs is more important than their absolute truth.

• Deflationary Account of Religion – A theory that reduces religious belief to psychological or sociological factors rather than divine reality.