Lesson 1.2: A Stone, Floating in Midair

Glossary

Philosophical Concepts

• Arkhé (ἀρχή) – The first principle or fundamental substance that explains all of reality; a central concept in Milesian philosophy.

• Material Monism – The metaphysical position that there is only one type of thing from which all other things come into being, and that this is a material (or physical) thing; all things, in other words, including consciousness, are ultimately material substances. 

• Substance Monism — In addition to being material monists, the Milesians can also be said to be substance monists, since they believe that everything in existence can be traced back to a single substance—whether it be water (Thales), the apeiron (Anaximander), or air (Anaximenes). 

• Reductionism – The approach of explaining complex phenomena by reducing them to simpler components (e.g., reducing all existence to a single element like water).

• Logos vs. Mythos –

  • Logos refers to rational explanations based on observation and reasoning.

  • Mythos refers to traditional storytelling that explains the world through gods, supernatural events, or sacred narratives.

  • The Milesians attempted to replace mythos with logos by explaining the universe without appealing to gods.

• Proto-Positivism – The belief that superstitious and supernatural explanations should be replaced with rational, naturalistic accounts (e.g., explaining weather with evaporation rather than divine will).

• Epistemology — A branch of philosophy concerned with the study of knowledge, including developing a satisfactory definition of knowledge, and optimal belief-forming practices.

• Epistemic Humility – The recognition that one’s knowledge is limited and that ideas must be questioned and improved upon over time.

• Epistemic Ambition – The belief that knowledge can be improved through investigation and rational inquiry, rather than accepting traditional explanations uncritically.

• Dialectical Inquiry – The process of challenging previous knowledge and improving upon it, first seen in Anaximander’s break from Thales.

• Ethics & Epistemology Connection – The idea that how we seek knowledge affects how we live. Good belief-forming practices (avoiding superstition, being open to criticism) are necessary for a flourishing life.

• Eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία) – Often translated as "happiness" or "flourishing," eudaimonia refers to the highest form of well-being in Greek philosophy. It is not just about pleasure or momentary joy but about living in accordance with virtue and achieving one's full potential. Later, different philosophical schools (Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics) will refine what eudaimonia means and how to achieve it.

The Milesian Philosophers

• Thales of Miletus (ca. 585 BCE) –

  • Considered the first philosopher in the Western tradition.

  • Proposed that water is the fundamental substance (arkhé) from which everything originates.

  • A practical thinker, also known for mathematics, astronomy, and engineering.

  • Possibly predicted an eclipse (though this is debated).

• Anaximander of Miletus (ca. 610–546 BCE) –

  • A student of Thales, but challenged his teacher’s ideas.

  • Introduced the concept of arkhé as the Apeiron (ἄπειρον), meaning the indefinite or boundless rather than a physical substance.

  • First to propose that the Earth floats in space rather than resting on anything.

  • Suggested that natural laws, not divine intervention, govern the universe.

  • Developed a naturalistic explanation of weather and life’s origins.

• Anaximenes of Miletus (ca. 585–528 BCE) –

  • Rejected the indefinite arkhé of Anaximander, instead claiming that air (pneuma) is the fundamental substance.

  • Proposed that air condenses and rarefies to form different materials, anticipating later atomic theories.

  • Suggested that the same natural laws apply to both small-scale (human life) and large-scale (cosmic) processes.

Scientific & Conceptual Innovations

• Naturalistic Explanations – The idea that natural phenomena (e.g., rain, lightning) have physical causes, not supernatural ones.

• Conceptual Leap in Astronomy –

  • Thales suggested a flat Earth.

  • Anaximander proposed a floating cylinder Earth with sky on all sides—a major shift toward understanding Earth as an object in space.

  • Anaximenes brought this closer to a spherical model.

• Proto-Theory of Evolution? – Anaximander suggested that all animals originally came from the sea. Although fascinating, this cannot be considered an early account of evolution; Anaximander was giving an account of the first generation of animals, not how they change over time. (In fact, he doesn’t seem to think they changed over time.)

• Meteorology & Climate Science – The idea that weather patterns can be explained scientifically rather than through divine intervention.

• Cosmos Governed by Necessity – Anaximander’s insight that one state of events determines another (a precursor to scientific causality).

Ethics & the Pursuit of Knowledge

• Epistemology & Ethics Connection –

  • To flourish, one must understand reality correctly.

  • Good belief-forming practices (questioning assumptions, rejecting superstition) lead to better decision-making and a more virtuous life.

• The Student-Teacher Model –

  • Before Anaximander, students accepted the master’s teachings without question.

  • Anaximander broke this tradition by challenging Thales and proposing an alternative hypothesis.

  • This shift paved the way for critical thinking and scientific progress.

• Analogy: Designing Video Games, Cars, etc. – Just as engineers improve upon previous designs, philosophers should take existing ideas and refine them.

• Superstition vs. Rational Inquiry –

  • Ancient thinkers like Anaximander were already rejecting superstition, much like Benjamin Franklin later did with his naturalistic explanation of lightning.

  • Example: If your car seems haunted, you should investigate mechanical issues rather than assume supernatural causes.

Political & Historical Context

• Iron Age Creation Myths –

  • Most ancient civilizations explained the universe through myths, often involving gods fighting and shaping the world.

  • Examples:

    • Enuma Elish (Babylonian) – Marduk creates the Earth from Tiamat’s corpse.

    • Genesis (Jewish) – Two creation stories, one where God creates light before the sun.

    • Hindu Myth – The Earth rests on elephants standing on a turtle.

  • The Greeks were different – Instead of myth, they posited a naturalistic cosmology, with the Earth floating in space.

• Persian Expansion & Greek Resistance –

  • During the Milesians’ time, the Persian Empire, led by Cyrus the Great, conquered Lydia, bringing Miletus under Persian control.

  • The Ionian Revolt (499 BCE) was a failed attempt by Miletus and other Greek city-states (with Athenian support) to resist Persian rule.

  • Darius of Persia vowed revenge against Athens, setting the stage for the Greco-Persian Wars.

Words You Might Not Know

• Apeiron (ἄπειρον) – Anaximander’s concept of the "indefinite" or "boundless" as the first principle of existence.

• Agathos (ἀγαθός) – A Greek word meaning “good” or “noble.” In Homeric and early Greek society, agathos often referred to physical excellence, bravery, or martial virtue (e.g., being a strong warrior). However, as Greek philosophy developed, the meaning shifted to include moral excellence, wisdom, and virtue as the highest form of being "good." Plato and Aristotle would later emphasize that true agathos is tied to the cultivation of the soul and rationality.

• Monism – The philosophical view that everything comes from one fundamental substance.

• Necessity (as a cosmic principle) – The idea that one state of events causes another, a precursor to scientific laws.

• Pneuma (πνεῦμα) – The Greek word for breath, air, or spirit; Anaximenes used it to describe the fundamental substance of reality.

• Epistemology – The branch of philosophy that studies knowledge, belief, and justification.

• Superstition – A belief that lacks rational foundation, often based on fear or cultural tradition.

• Dialectical Inquiry – A method of questioning and refining ideas through debate, introduced by thinkers like Anaximander.

• Geopolitical Predator – A term for a powerful empire that expands aggressively, used here to describe Persia’s dominance in the region.